Bruce has worked in educational technology for thirty years, but his real love is history and teaching. This BLOG represents that. In addition to technology and history, Bruce is the author of several books, including Sands of Time, Towering Pines Volume One: Room 509, The Star of Christmas, Philadelphia Story, The Insider's Story, How to Play Guitar, and How to Read the Bible.
Today in American History, 02/19/1942 President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. This Executive Order authorized the "evacuation" of everyone of Japanese ancestry from the west coast of the United States. This order began what is known as the Japanese Internment during World War II, this continued until June 30, 1946.
Members of the Mochida Family tagged and waiting to be relocated.
In response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor and subsequent war with Japan, the order was issued and allowed regional military commanders to designate "military areas" that would allow "any and all persons to be excluded." This order was vague enough to allow all people of Japanese ancestry to be excluded from the entirety of the American West Coast, including all of California, most of Oregon, Washington and Arizona. It is estimated that somewhere between 100,000 and 125,000 Japanese were forcibly relocated during this time period. Approximately 5,000 Japanese Americans voluntarily relocated before March of 1942 before the military began removing people. The forcible removal and subsequent incarceration was seemingly applied unequally, partially because of the different population concentrations. While there were over 100,000 Japanese Americans moved on the West Coast, the situation in Hawaii was much different. Only approximately 1,500 out of the 150,000 Japanese in Hawaii were moved into government camps because the population center of Hawaii was approximately 1/3rd Japanese. Of the approximately 130,000 Japanese Americans who were interred in the Western part of the United States and Hawaii, it is estimated that over 62% of them were American citizens. The United States Census Bureau assisted with the locating and removal of Japanese Americans by providing personal and confidential data to the military.
Locations of Camps
The Bureau actively denied its role in the removal of American citizens until documents that proved its role came to light in 2007. This removal of American citizens against their will was upheld as constitutional by the Supreme Court in 1944 in the United States vs. Fred Korematsu. While the court upheld the validity of the right to remove an American citizen from their home against their will, it said nothing about the subsequent incarceration of the citizens without due process. The Japanese Americans that were taken from their homes and incarcerated without their consent or due process often lost everything they owned, including their homes and personal possessions. The War Relocation Authority was a civilian run organization that was tasked with assigning people to camps and maintaining them. All told there were 69 camps spread out all over the country, with some even holding Americans of Italian and German ancestry, too. While some of the camps were maintained and kept up within reason, the majority of them featured poor living conditions.
Workers harvesting food at an internment camp.
This dark period in American history was kicked off because of a combination of things. The government feared that there were Japanese spies living within the communities, and they publicly said that the move was to protect the citizens from possible violence from Americans who blamed the Japanese for Pearl Harbor. In the 1980 report by the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Citizens entitled "Personal Justice Denied", the commission found that there was very little evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time and concluded that the incarceration had been a product of racism. They recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors and their families. In 1988, President Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act that authorized a payment of $20,000 to each individual camp survivor. In the act the government admitted to wrongdoing based on "racial prejudice, war hysteria and a failure of political leadership." The total amount of money paid out was more than $1.6 billion.
~~~ Bruce holds a degree in Computer Science from Temple University, a Graduate Certificate in Biblical History from Liberty University and is working towards a Masters Degree in American History at American Public University. He has worked in educational and technology for over 18 years, specializes in building infrastructures for schools that work to support the mission of technology in education in the classroom. He also has served as a classroom teacher in Computer Science, History and English classes.
The Battle of Gettysburg has done down in history as not only one of the bloodiest in the history of the modern world, but the bloodiest and possibly most significant battle in American history. One of the largest shortcomings that the United States encountered during the Civil War was its ability -- or lack-thereof -- to deal with large amounts of dead soldiers. The Battle of Gettysburg began on July 1st, 1863 and ended on July 3rd, 1863 with a critical Union victory. As with many of the battles, the burial of the dead was not handled as it should have been and on October 17, 1863 the United States began reburying the dead in a more proper manner and ended with the creation of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863. And on this occasion, President Abraham Lincoln gave his famous Gettysburg Address.
Lincoln at Gettysburg
Lincoln's famous speech lasted only about ten minutes, and came after a two-hour master oration from Edward Everett who was the featured speaker of the day. This short speech has come under some scrutiny as time has passed. The actual paper that Lincoln used to prepare for and deliver the speech was either lost or he did not carry one. But there are five known manuscripts of the speech that are considered drafts of the speech. The copies of the speech were named after the people that Lincoln handed the speech to. They are the Nicolay, Hay, Everett, Bancrofft and Bliss copies. The details of most of these copies aren't terribly relevant, although some are interesting. For example, Nicolay and Hay were Lincoln's private secretaries and we know these drafts were written just before the actual speech was given. Both Nicolay and Hay were also appointed as custodians of Lincoln's papers by his son, Todd, in 1874. What is interesting about the two drafts is that they are not the same text. In fact, none of the five copies that exist are the same and no one wrote down what Lincoln said at Gettysburg on that day. While historians agree that this is not likely the actual words that were spoken at Gettysburg on that day, the commonly accepted text for Lincoln's famous oration is referred to as the Bliss Copy. This is was the last known copy that Lincoln wrote out by request. This is the text that stands on display in the Lincoln Room at The White House today. This is the copy that is most often facsimiled for print copies. Below is the text of the Bliss Copy of the Gettysburg Address. Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, not long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion -- that we are highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
The Bliss Copy of the Gettysburg Address
These words seem a little ironic, especially when you consider that they are the words that we remember and the way many Americans identify with Gettysburg.
~~~ Bruce holds a degree in Computer Science from Temple University, a Graduate Certificate in Biblical History from Liberty University and is working towards a Masters Degree in American History at American Public University. He has worked in educational and technology for over 18 years, specializes in building infrastructures for schools that work to support the mission of technology in education in the classroom. He also has served as a classroom teacher in Computer Science, History and English classes. Bruce is the author of five books: Sands of Time, Towering Pines Volume One:Room 509, The Star of Christmas, Philadelphia Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel and The Insider's Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel -- with a new book, Learn the Basics: Digital Forensics, due soon. Follow Bruce's Novel releases by subscribing to his FREE newsletter!
Today in American History, 09/26/1960, John Kennedy and Richard Nixon engaged in the first televised presidential debate in history. It can be said that television has changed the world, and can be seen as a window into an opiate view of American and world cultures. Our language and day-to-day activities have been altered because of the technology as we have all been subject to periods of being "couch potatoes" and scheduling our time around what time shows such a "The Andy Griffith Show", the season premier of "The Sopranos" or the finales of shows like "M*A*S*H" or "Seinfeld". We were all glued to our televisions during events such as the first space shuttle launch, news coverage of the Oklahoma City Bombing and 9/11 and scheduled events such as the Olympics. And who can argue the impact of television on professional sporting events such as The Super Bowl (go ahead, NFL, sue me).
Kennedy Nixon Debate, 09/26/1960
With all of those things combined, no one can say that television has not influenced and impacted the lives of everyone in the world in an irreversible and undeniable way. An argument can be made that it is leading to the downfall of society (see MTV and it's introduction of reality TV as examples) or that it has helped to develop culture and learning (see Sesame Street and PBS as examples). One of the biggest things that has been influenced (for better or worse) in American is our politics. And, today in history in 1960, for the first time in history, Americans were able to see and hear their candidates debate on television. While this was not the first time a President on television -- (President Theodore Roosevelt appeared on television in 1939 at the World's Fair and President Harry Truman gave the first Presidential address in 1947 on television) -- this was the first time two candidates debated and gave the public the opportunity to form an indelible impression of their candidates based on how they looked while they discussed the topics of the day. The two major party candidates met in Chicago and the broadcast was carried on all the major stations. This debate is still considered to be the highest rated debate in history based in Nielson's ratings, although it did not reach nearly the number of people the debates reach today. Click below to watch the debate:
The debate lasted for one hour and it delivered interesting results. It was the prevailing opinion that to those who watched it on television, the younger and more charismatic John Kennedy won the debate easily. While those who listened to the debate on the traditional medium, radio, would have thought that Richard Nixon won. This alone is a fascinating commentary on the power of television. Most folks said that in comparison to Kennedy, Nixon seemed nervous and unprepared. And some said that Nixon's decision to wear make up impacted the public's perception of him.
There were two other televised debates, and Nixon scored much higher in those debates but was still slated as losing them in the eye of the public. And in this case, it was truly the eye -- and not the ear that mattered -- because in November of 1960 John F. Kennedy won 49.7% of the popular vote and edged Richard Nixon for the Presidency of the United States of America. While it is the closest popular vote in history (49.7 to 49.6), It is not an uncommon belief that Kennedy's visual power on television was the deciding factor in the election. It is worth noting that because of the results, in 1964, 1968 and 1972 at least one of the candidates refused to debate on television and as a result, and as only carried on radio. It was not until 1976 when Jimmy Carter debated Gerald Ford, did the debates return to television and have been televised every election since.
It is worth nothing that the format of the debates is very much in the public eye today, as only Republicans and Democrats are eligible to be included in the debates. There is a strong movement afoot led by Gary Johnson who seeks to change the rules so that leading alternate party candidates would be allowed to debate on a national stage.
~~~~ Bruce holds a degree in Computer Science from Temple University, a Graduate Certificate in Biblical History from Liberty University and is working towards a Masters Degree in American History at American Public University. He has worked in educational and technology for over 18 years, specializes in building infrastructures for schools that work to support the mission of technology in education in the classroom. He also has served as a classroom teacher in Computer Science, History and English classes. Bruce is the author of five books: Sands of Time, Towering Pines Volume One:Room 509, The Star of Christmas, Philadelphia Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel and The Insider's Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel -- with a new book, Learn the Basics: Digital Forensics, due soon. Follow Bruce's Novel releases by subscribing to his FREE newsletter!
The War of 1812 is the oft forgotten war between the United States and Great Britain that spanned 1812 through 1815. On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to Congress with a list of grievances against Great Britain. While Madison did not ask for a declaration of war, Congress did so anyway. Congress took four days and voted 79 to 49 in favor of war. This marked the first time the United States of America declared war on another nation, and this was the closest Congressional vote on the subject in history.
Many historians have referred to the War of 1812 as the Second War for Independence. But it was so much more than that. If it were simply that, we'd be British citizens again. The United States did not win the War of 1812 by any reasonable measure. In the end, the Treaty of Ghent returned all captured lands (mostly lands captured by Great Britain) and did not address any of the issues that pushed the United States into war with Great Britain. After Ghent was signed, the United States celebrated because it was the first time it had gone toe-to-toe in a major conflict with another country and it did not lose out of hand. In spite of the White House being burned to the ground, and Washington being captured -- in the end, it was a draw and America embraced not losing. There were a couple of major issues that caused the United States to declare war with Great Britain at a time in which the United States had very little military might. One of the biggest issues was British impressment of American sailors on the sea. The American naval force was small and weak at this point in history. And Great Britain claimed that British sailors were defecting to American vessels and they wanted their sailors back. In response to this issue, Great Britain would simply seize American ships and take claim the sailors as part of the Royal British Navy. Great Britain was right -- there were British sailors on American ships. The United States held the belief that anyone had the right to become and American citizen. Great Britain did not recognize naturalized Americans as American citizens. And the British took sailors indiscriminately. The British took everyone with no regard to their citizenship. They took American and British sailors, and impressed them into service in the British navy without any right to do so. The United States made multiple and continuing efforts to curb this behavior, but was really powerless to do so. The next major issue was the British interference with American expansionism. America wanted to expand westward. The Louisiana Purchase of land from France in 1803 gave Americans a new road west. The largest single expansion in American history excited and charged the country in a major way, and Americans were westward ho. The problem was that, in spite of France giving the land to the United States, the Native Americans stood in the way. And before Andrew Jackson (who was a celebrated hero of the War of 1812 before he became President) signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830 that lead to the Trail of Tears, Americans were clashing with Native Americans at every turn as they pushed west. The United States began forcibly pushing Indians off their land, but met with resistance. And that Indian resistance was fueled with British support. The British were thought to have actively supported Indian raids with the Winnebago, Shawnee, Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo and Delaware tribes against the United States. When you add that to the British and their insistence that there be an Indian Neutral Zone that would cover what is modern day Ohio and Indiana, tensions were running high. The United States had repeatedly told Great Britain to stay out of its affairs, but the British barely recognized America as a sovereign nation in spite of its great trade relationship until about 1806 when President Jefferson signed the Embargo Act which cut all trade ties with Britain. This essentially crippled the American economy and created a lot of strain an American trade abroad. Great Britain had been at war with France on a continuing basis for some time, and in 1807 Great Britain introduced a series of trade embargoes, blockades and restrictions that were meant to choke trade going to and from France. When you combined Jefferson's Embargo Act with the British trade blockade, the United States exports dropped over 200% over a three year period. By 1812, the United States had to do something -- so they declared war to help save their own economy. In 1812, Madison was gambling that Great Britain would not be able to fight a war on two fronts -- and they'd have no interest in doing so. Madison was wrong. Madison worked on the assumption that the state militias would come together and seize the Canadian territories that he coveted. However, in 1812 the army consisted of fewer than 12,00 men. Congress authorized the expansion to 35,000, however few signed up. The United States Navy was outnumbered by the Royal British Navy by 50 to 1. The first year of the war went very poorly for the United States. However, by the middle of 1813 the United States military began to grow and push back on the invading British forces. And with the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, the British could finally send a veteran force to North America. Unfortunately, the United States was no longer a small force of push overs. But just as the American military began to show signs of life, a serious blunder occurred. The American Navy had grown substantially, and began to engage the larger, more powerful British Navy in epic battles on the water. The United States felt that it could break through the strong British blockage of the east coast, and moved to do so off the Chesapeake Bay in August of 1814. The offensive mounted by the Americans was quashed, and the resulting British offensive on the Chesapeake led to the British attacking and seizing Washington. During the sieged on Washington, the British burned down the White House, the capitol building and the naval yard. It was during this battle that the poem that inspired the Star Spangled Banner was penned But the United States Navy fought the British Navy to a draw in the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, and continued to push back on the British ground forces until Great Britain tired of the war. The Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814 but word of its signing was slow to make its way to America and fighting continued throughout early 1815. With the return of the lands and the British retreating from the continent, the biggest losers in the war were the Native Americans. They suffered the largest lose of life as a percentage of population. And they were left without anyone to defend and assist them in North America now that France and Great Britain had been run out of town. After the crushing defeats at Thames and Horseshoe Bend, they were left at the mercy of the Americans who had shown their colors already regarding the Indians. Many historians agree that the War of 1812 precipitated and hastened things like the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the large scale removal of Indians from all lands in North America. The War of 1812 also held significance for Bermuda and British ruled Canada, in that Great Britain moved in and built a large presence in these areas because of the conflict.
~~~~ Bruce holds a degree in Computer Science from Temple University, a Graduate Certificate in Biblical History from Liberty University and is working a Master Degree in American History at American Public University. He has worked in educational and technology for over 18 years, specializes in building infrastructures for schools that work to support the mission of technology in education in the classroom. He also has served as a classroom teacher in Computer Science, History and English classes. Bruce is the author of five books: Sands of Time, Towering Pines Volume One:Room 509, The Star of Christmas, Philadelphia Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel and The Insider's Story: A Lance Carter Detective Novel -- with a new book, Learn the Basics: Digital Forensics, due soon. Follow Bruce's Novel releases by subscribing to his FREE newsletter!
